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Economics at Oxford

 British Chartists attack the Westgate Hotel during the Newport Rising of 1838.

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Contents

History

Early History

The University of Oxford is the oldest university in the English-speaking world, and one of the oldest in Europe. It is said to have been founded around 1167, by English masters and students  expelled from the University of Paris, in the course of the quarrel between Henry II of England and Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury (then in exile in France).  Troubles in 1209 between King John and the Church led to a royal crackdown on the Oxford masters and clerks.  A group of exiled Oxonians are said to have established themselves in the nearby town of Cambridge, creating the nucleus of what would soon become Cambridge University, the ancient and perennial rival of Oxford.

Oxford was among the earliest and most prominent of the Scholastic universities of Europe.  Robert Grosseteste introduced the newly-recovered works of Aristotle into Oxford in the 1230s, and went on to produce a famous school of Franciscan Scholastics that included Roger Bacon,  John Peckham, John Duns Scotus, William of Ockham and Richard of Middleton.

When Popes started handing out charters granting fledgling universities the privileges of a Studium generale, Oxford (alongside other proud old schools like Paris and Bologna) refused to acquire one, believing their reputation and status sufficient and indisputable.   By the time it realized the privileges were worth having and stooped to apply for one, the pope refused - on the grounds that Oxford was implicated by its association with John Wycliffe and the Lollards.  As a result, Oxford never received a papal charter, one of the only two old European universities (the other was Padua); to have subsisted without one, a Studium generale by custom only

Oxford narrowly survived the dissolution of the monasteries by Henry VIII in 1539, by subjecting itself to royal reorganization. During the Henrican reforms, most of the old colleges of Oxford were shut down or broken up, the traditional Scholastic curriculum was purged in favor a more humanistic one.  Henry VIII endowed five "Regius Professorships" - in Divinity, Hebrew, Greek, Civil Law and Medicine.  The Elizabethan Act of Incorporation (13 Elizabeth c.29) in 1571 gave Oxford its first formal charter, recasting it effectively as a seminary for the (Anglican/Episcopalian) Church of England.  

Religious tests were introduced in 1589.  Students residing in a college were required to officially matriculate in the central university, and affix their names to a subscription book confirming the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Anglican faith (compiled by the Synod of London in 1562).  This "matriculation test" was unique to Oxford (Cambridge did not require it), thus effectively barring any  Non-Conformist Protestants, Catholics and Jews, from entering the university.  Oxford also had a "degree test", where they in order to receive their B.A. degree, students had to prove their knowledge and confirm the validity of the 39 articles, the Book of Common Prayer and swear an oath to the supremacy of the King (Cambridge had the "degree test", but not so detailed; it was sufficient for the candidate to declare he was a member of the Church of England).   Oxford maintained the religious matriculation and degree tests until 1854.

In 1606, James I allowed Oxford to send a representative to Parliament.  With the rise in popularity of Calvinist-inspired Puritanism in the 17th C., Cambridge's looser entry requirements allowed it to flirt with the new mood and Cambridge soon acquired a reputation as a breeder of Puritans and Low Church "enthusiasm". However, Oxford maintained itself steadfastly traditional, the bastion of "High Church" Anglicanism, upholders of traditional ecclesiastical institutions, devoted to the central notion of the union of church and state, and firmly tied to the Stuart monarchy.  Thus it is unsurprising that during the English Civil Wars of the 1640s, King Charles I made Oxford his political and military headquarters.   Oxford's fortunes rose and fell with the Stuarts. After the 1688 Glorious Revolution, Oxford's devotion to the Stuarts made it a Jacobite hotbed, never quite finding a way to reconcile itself with the Williamite and Hanoverian monarchies.

Structure

The 1571 Elizabethan constitution was overhauled by the "Laudian statutes", assembled under the supervision of William Laud (Archbishop of Canterbury and Chancellor of Oxford), that went officially into force on June 12, 1636.  The Laudian statutes would remain the effective constitution of Oxford University until the mid-19th C.  The statutes were very detailed, regulating the relationship between the central university and the constituent colleges, all the way down down to curriculum, examinations and student life.

In theory, the government of the university was the Convocation, the notional assembly of all the masters and doctors, resident and non-resident, who maintained their names on the books of one of the constituent colleges.  It served something like a "legislature" for the university (e.g. the Convocation elected the Chancellor, the two MPs, etc.)  However, in practice, power was vested in the so-called "Hebdomadal Meeting", a smaller oligarchic council  which alone had the power to initiate changes to be voted by the Convocation.  The Hebdomadal council was composed of the heads of Colleges and Halls plus the two "Proctors" of the university (proctors were notional representatives of the rest of the university community).  The figurehead of the university was the Chancellor, who in turn appointed a Vice-Chancellor from among the heads of the Colleges.  The Vice-Chancellor customarily had a four-year term and did most of the actual presiding in university meetings. 

Up until 1854, Oxford was composed of 19 "Colleges" (only a handful of which were founded after the Reformation) and five "Halls".  A College was essentially a residential house for students. Each college had a stable of thirty or so 'fellows' who acted as tutors and lecturers for the undergraduates. In principle, fellows were recent graduates who had received their B.A. but continued residing at the college and were paid a small emolument to 'mentor' undergraduates. By statute, the fellows of a college were expected to be ordained into the Anglican priesthood after seven years. However, a fellow who took up the additional task of lecturing could prolong his fellowship without ordination.  However, a fellow was still required to remain unmarried, and any fellow who married would promptly forfeit his fellowship (a codicil that was only changed in 1882.)  

The head of a College had a variety of names depending on the college ("Master", "President", "Provost", "Warden", etc.).  The head was elected by the fellows of his college, with no involvement by the rest of the university. His primary obligation was administrative and spiritual supervision (thus heads were almost always clerics), but usually did not get involved in educational matters, leaving that to the fellows.

The difference between a College and a Hall was that a Hall did not offer fellowships or scholarships, and the head of the Hall (almost invariably known as the "Principal") was appointed by the Chancellor of the University.  Lack of fellows meant that the Principal of the Hall had to take on more of the educational functions himself.

University College (f.1249), Balliol College (f.1263), Merton College (f.1264) have all set out claims to be the oldest still-existing Oxford colleges.  Oriel College (1326) is the oldest to be founded by a royal and for a time enjoyed a reputation as the most liberal and intellectually accomplished, the home of the "Noetics" of the19th Century (Copleston, Whately, etc.).  New College (1379) is often credited for pioneering the quintessentially Oxonian system of education, notably the tutorial system. Christ Church College (1525) is traditionally considered the most prominently aristocratic and conservatively High Church, while St. John's (1555), founded by merchant fortunes, was reputedly the richest.  Other old colleges include Exeter (1314), Queen's (1341), Lincoln (1427), Magdalen (1458),  Brasenose (1509), and Pembroke (1624).  Hertford College (formerly Hart Hall) was notable as a collection of point of Renaissance humanists.  Among the colleges designed only for graduates is the prestigious All Souls College (f.1438) and the more modern economics-oriented Nuffield College (f.1937).

Traditional curriculum

Since Scholastic times, the traditional Oxford curriculum for a Bachelor of Arts encompassed the classical "seven liberal arts" - the the 'interpretive' trivium (grammar, rhetoric and logic) and the 'factual' quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music).  Undergraduate degrees ("Bachelor of Arts") were obtained after an oral Latin disputation, focused on language skills and mastery of logic, and demonstrated familiarity with religious knowledge (with focus on the Thirty-nine Articles of the Anglican Church).  The 1638 Laudian statutes replaced the Latin disputation with a final oral examination on the set of subjects that were required to be taught by statute.  The course of studies set out by statutes were: in the first year, grammar and rhetoric (in a wide humanistic sense), second year, logic and moral philosophy, third & fourth: logic, moral philosophy, geometry and Greek.

Although Oxford had hosted William Petty and Thomas Hobbes in the mid-17th C., Oxford's Jacobitism ensured it remained isolated and insular.  In relative terms, Oxford missed out on much of the "Scientific Revolution" that raged nearby at Cambridge.  The 18th Century is sometimes considered the "academic dark ages" of England, and Oxford in particular.  Students barely attended lectures, and the oral examination deprecated into routines with little actual testing of student's knowledge.  Although Elizabethan statutes (13 Elizabeth c.29) fined students for non-attendance of lectures, this was largely ignored and unenforced.

Oriel Noetics

During the 18th C., while the Scottish academies had embraced the Enlightenment and a curriculum in modern disciplines, such as moral philosophy and natural sciences Oxford labored under the weight of its Medieval Scholastic heritage. Attempts to modernize the curriculum at Oxford had largely failed - the Whyte Professor of Moral Philosophy (est. 1631) had long since ceased lecturing and was so entirely forgotten, the title stopped being listed on university calendars.  The Regius Professor of Modern History (est. 1724) fared only a little better.   For the most part, in the 18th C., Oxford was regarded little more than a training ground for Anglican clerics, dominated by ultra-Tory High Church views, and a finishing school for gentlemen, with an archaic curriculum dominated by Greek and Latin Classics, and degrees which were hardly earned.  Edward Gibbon famously mocked 18th C. Oxford as a sleeping place for dons.  Adam Smith, who attended Balliol College, Oxford in 1740-46 on a scholarship, had nothing good to say about his experience there. 

Things began to change at the turn of the century, with the introduction of competitive "honours" examinations in 1800-09 and an overhaul of the curriculum with more exacting educational standards, albeit still dedicated to the classicsal liberal arts.  The locomotive was Oriel College, initially under the leadership of John Eveleigh (provost of Oriel from 1789 to 1814), and then Edward Copleston (provost of Oriel from 1814 to 1827).  Eveleigh had introduced competitive examinations and a new policy of selecting students for intellectual potential rather than family connections, turning Oriel arguably into the most meritocratic college at Oxford in the early 19th C. As a result, Oriel was quickly blessed with a generation of talented young men, bent on intellectual achievement (or over-achievement, by the standards of the day).  Copleston mentored a generation of fellows and students at Oriel known as the "Noetics" (Greek for "reasoners"), that flourished in the 1810s and 1820s, which included Richard Whately, John Davison, Edward Hawkins, Thomas J. Arnold, J. Blanco White, Baden Powell, Renn Dickson Hampden, and others. Oriel Noetics acquired (and cultivated) a reputation as hyper-intellectuals, the leading lights of the university. They also constituted the Oxford branch of the "Broad Church" movement, promoting liberal theology and freedom of enquiry, which often stood in stark contrast to the stuffy conservative "High Church" Tory outlook that dominated the rest of the university at the time.

Political economy was not absent in this transformation.  The Regius Professor of Modern History (f.1724) had always touched on political and economic topics.  This became more pronounced under George Beeke, a fellow of Oriel and Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford from 1801 to 1813. Beeke famously produced an early attempt to measure national income, in an effort to estimate the revenues of the Pitt income tax.  His contemporary, Edward Tatham, the Rector of Lincoln College, had also been involved in public finance matters of the Pitt ministry - crediting himself (without modesty) as the author of the property tax of the late 1790s, and continued to be an occasional commentator on the bullion debate.  Edward Copleston encouraged inquiry and discussion on political economy in the Oriel common room, and dabbled in the field himself, publishing tracts on the bullion controversy and the Poor Laws.

In 1808-10, a series of articles appeared in the Edinburgh Review, the latter-day pulpit of the Scottish Enlightenment, deriding the archaic Scholastic curriculum of Oxford, and the centrality given to Aristotlean logic and Christian theology, at the expense of modern subjects like mathematics, science, philosophy and economics.  Copleston rose to the occasion, and authored a Reply to the Calumnies (1810), effectively the "Noetic manifesto", defending the Oxonian curriculum.  While acknowledging the importance of economics to general education of the statesmen the English universities turned out, Copleston nonetheless saw economics merely as a science about a "means to an end", and insisted on the importance of classical and religious learning to provide the normative basis, the "value of the end".  

Copleston's program was taken up by his disciple Richard Whately, who led the Oriel Noetics through the 1820s. In his famous textbook, Elements of Logic (1826), Whately famously rescued logic from its dilapidated state in the Scholastic curriculum, and recast it as a modern science of inquiry, setting the field on the road to formalization in the 1830s.  Another Noetic, Renn Dickson Hampden, revived the ancient forgotten professorship of Moral Philosophy in 1831.

Economics enters Oxford

On May 11, 1825, Oxford accepted an offer by Henry Drummond to endow a Chair in Political Economy.  The offer was viewed suspiciously by the conservative High Church dons of Oxford. Not only were they wary of this new secular science, many believing it incompatible with Christian ethics and teaching, they were a little suspicious of Henry Drummond himself. Although a former student, Drummond had never taken an Oxford degree and had since become the leader of a rather extreme "Low Church" evangelical sect in Albury Park. Nonetheless, the Oriel Noetics, led by Whately, urged acceptance. Political economy, they argued, was rapidly becoming indispensable field for statesmen. Oxford purported to educate the future leaders of Britain, and if Oxford did not teach them economics, they would simply pick it up from the London gutters - from the irreligious Ricardians and Radical Utilitarians, who were staking the field as their own exclusive province, and infusing it with their profane ethics and vulgar principles. If Christian thought and ethics are to have any influence on the new science, then economics must be brought inside the cloister, where it can be taught "properly". Moreover, Cambridge already had a lecturer in political economy - George Pryme, since 1816 - surely Oxford should have one too?  The Oxford dons held their nose and approved it.  

In the original terms, the Drummond chair in Political Economy would receive annual stipend of £100 funded by Henry Drummond from his Albury estate. Candidates must have an advanced Oxford degree (at least an M.A. or a Bachelor of Law), and were to be elected by the Convocation of all masters. The Drummond professor would serve for a fixed term of five years, and could not be re-elected unless a two year interval had passed (this restriction was lifted in December 1867 for Bonamy Price). The professor was required to deliver nine lectures per academic year (October-July) and publish at least one of them. Finally, a lecture must have at least three attendees in order to count. 

Whately was instrumental in securing the appointment of his own former pupil and friend, Nassau William Senior, as the first Drummond Professor of Political Economy in June, 1825.  However, Senior took over a year to prepare, and was only ready to deliver his first lectures in December 1826. Although they were rather poorly attended, Senior soldiered on. Senior published many of his lectures, staking out the theoretical and policy positions of what can be called the "Oxford-Dublin School", sometimes regarded as a branch of Classical economics, but more properly as a proto-marginalist challenge to it.  After Senior's five year-term ended in 1830, Whately took over the Drummond Professorship himself - but stayed for only a year before accepting a position as the new Archbishop of Dublin in late 1831 (he went on to establish the Whately chair at Trinity College Dublin in 1832, on similar terms as the Drummond chair, which would continue the theoretical line begun at Oxford).

Whately's departure in late 1831 led to the appointment of William Forster Lloyd to the Drummond chair at Oxford. Although himself a proto-marginalist, Lloyd was not quite of the school of Whately-Senior - indeed quite the opposite.  W.F. Lloyd was the younger brother of the powerful Charles Lloyd, Bishop of Oxford and Regius professor of Divinity.  Although Charles Lloyd had died in 1829, during his lifetime Lloyd's Christ Church had been a keen competitor of Copleston's Oriel for the soul of Oxford.  The transition in the Drummond professorship from Richard Whately to W.F. Lloyd in 1831 mirrored a decisive transition away from the reformist 'Broad Church' liberalism of the Oriel Noetics towards the reactionary High Church conservatism championed by Christ Church and Lloyd.  

Tractarianism

The transition really began when Charles Lloyd beat out Edward Copleston in the competition for the Bishopric of Oxford in 1827 (Copleston got the Bishopric of Llandalf - a virtual sentence of exile).  At the time, the conservative High Church community at Oxford was growing alarmed at the fraying of the traditional marriage between Church and State in an increasingly liberal England.  Although the conservative wing of the Tory Party, under the Duke of Wellington and his lieutenant Sir Robert Peel (a protege of Lloyd), had come to power in early 1828, they seemed incapable of reversing the trend. Indeed, Wellington and Peel presided over the repeal of the Test and Corporation acts in 1828, and, in early 1829, passed the Catholic emancipation act.  The Oxford community howled in protest  and forced Sir Robert Peel, Oxford's long-standing Tory MP,  to resign.  Discontent took a more dramatic turn in 1831, when N.W. Senior (then in London) authored a report for the new Whig government effectively recommending the disestablishment of the (Anglican) Church of Ireland.  Blamed by association with Senior, Whately found the atmosphere in Oxford increasingly hostile, and so did not have to think twice when the Dublin preferment came up.  

In the aftermath of Whately's departure, the remaining Noetics at Oxford were besieged.  Hampden had assumed the Whyte professorship of moral philosophy in 1831, and pushed the Noetic envelope further in his Observations on Religious Dissent 1834, advocating the abolition of religious tests and allow the admission of Dissenters into Oxford University (a side-effect of the 1834 Cambridge petition to Parliament).. Hampden's pamphlet served as a lightning rod to send the High Churchmen into a frenzy.  The younger men of Oriel - notably John Keble, John Henry Newman, Richard H. Froude, Edward Pusey,  and others - groomed by the old Noetics but subsequently lulled by Lloyd,  revolted against their elders.  They were appalled by what they perceived as the open collaboration between the Noetics and the Whig government in dismantling the institutions of the Anglican Church, and the apparent willingness of the rest of the clergy to simply go along with it. 

This group of youngsters - known later as the "Oxford Movement" or simply "the Tractarians" - blamed not the Whigs, nor parliament, nor the general public, but rather placed the blame squarely on the clergy themselves.  The "attack" on the Church of England was not external, but internal.  In their estimation,  the clergy had grown so used to being part of the State, that they had practically forgotten they were part of the Church. The clergy did not vigorously defend their institutions and traditions, partly because were ignorant of them or did not appreciate their history and importance, and partly because they had reconciled themselves to subservience to the will of the State.  The "confessional sate", the idea that parliament served effectively as the ruling synod of the Church of England, might have worked well enough in the long decades of conservative Tory rule, but parliament was now in the hands of liberal Whigs, and included non-Anglican Dissenters and Catholics as MPs. In short, secularizers and unbelievers were in charge of the church.  The Anglican church needs a new, separate identity, or more precisely - the Tractarians argued - to recover its old identity as a separate institution with its own distinct history, functions and social role.

Keble, Newman, Froude, Pusey et al. consequently decided to correct that.  Starting in 1833, the group began to put out a series of pamphlets known as the Tracts of the Times.  Most of these were innocuous historical tracts, more interested in educating about church history than in engaging in abstract theological polemics.  Their research into the history of the church morphed into a zeal for the revival of traditional High Anglicanism of the Caroline divines and a Romantic-tinged fascination with Medievalism.  The Tractarians urged a revival of old rituals and liturgies, bringing back vestments, candles and incense, to add color and inspire the imagination, and re-center church service on the holy communion and its mystery.  The parish church should be re-cast not only as a spiritual center of the community, but also a social institution.  The parish priest should present himself as a community leader, not a state official, and assume the role of a countervailing force, rather than a conduit, of harsh state policies of the Whig era (like the Poor Laws)

The Tractarians dominated intellectual life at Oxford in the 1830s and early 1840s.  The hyper-conservative, ultra-High Church views espoused by the Tractarians not only shocked their more liberal elders - like Hampden and Baden Powell, who were still at Oxford - it was also at odds with the general sentiment outside of Oxford.  While their call for preserving the centrality of the Church of England institutions in English public life found some resonance, their emphasis on its traditional features, and calls for a return to older rituals and liturgies in the Church of England faced more resistance.  Critics derided their "smells and bells" ritualism and accused them of trying to reintroduce relics of "Romanism" into a solidly Protestant church.  The Tractarians did not disavow the connection, and indeed emphasized the continuity between the Medieval Catholic church in England and the post-Reformation Church of England, seeing an unbroken line of apostolic succession, and a continuation of the sacraments.

The Tractarian conflict with the Noetics entered into high phase in 1836 with the vacancy of the powerful Regius Professorship of Divinity.  The Noetics proposed Renn Dickson Hampden, then in moral philosophy, but the Tractarians pushed for Edward Pusey or Keble or Newman or anybody else but Hampden.  They hit the pamphlets, with accusations that in his 1832 Bampton lectures (on the history of the Scholastics), Hampden had postulated some irreligious ideas, insinuating that morals and theology had no connection with scriptural revelations. This was a caricature of Hampden's position - Hampden merely sought to show that the Scholastic arguments were historically conditioned, influenced by contemporary events.  In many ways it was orthodox Protestantism, suggesting the Scholastics were not authoritative over scripture, but it was precisely this that irritated the Tractarians, who were trying to revive the authority of the Patristic Fathers of the church.  The High Church leaders of Oxford only heard  that Hampden believed things like the Nicene creed or the doctrine of the Trinity might be mistaken, and hurriedly declared him unfit for the position.  Nonetheless, the Whig government (pushed by Whately and Copleston) went ahead and appointed Hampden to the professorship.  It was met by a storm of protest in the Oxford community. The Tractarians and High Churchmen launched a campaign to retract the appointment, composing petitions to the King, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and urged other dioceses to join in the push.  When they seemed to make no headway with the government, the Tractarians went so far as to have the Convocation of Oxford pass a statute declaring the university had no confidence in Hampden, removing him from the boards selecting preachers and reviewing sermons, and releasing students of theology from the obligation to attend his lectures.  Although the statute was later declared illegal, it infuriated the Whig PM Viscount Melbourne, who was determined to hold his ground against pretensions of the "rebels of Oxford" to seize control of appointments.  Hampden appointment to Divinity was confirmed, but in an act of mollification William Sewell, a sympathizer of the Tractarians, became the new Whyte professor of moral philosophy. 

William F. Lloyd's tenure in the Drummond Chair came to an end in 1837, and the search for his successor began at the height of the Tractarian movement.  Sewell persuaded the theologian and future Christian Socialist, Frederick Denison Maurice to stand for the chair, and the Tractarians stood behind him.  The Noetic candidate, Herman Merivale, a Whig and former Whately student at Oriel, threw his hat into the ring, but stood little chance.  Maurice's candidacy, favored by the High Churchmen, seemed a sure thing but then Maurice made some remarks on infant baptism that instantly turned the Tractarians against him.  With Maurice's candidacy lost, Herman Merivale (whose political Whig views were deplored, but at least had never made any religious comments of any kind) slipped into the Drummond chair by default.   Merivale's tenure ended in 1841, and Senior himself decided to submit his candidacy.  But the High Churchmen were still riding high, and the chair went to a lawyer, Travis Twiss, instead. 

 The Tractarians finally crossed the line with their (in)famous "Tract No.90", authored by John Henry Newman in 1841 - effectively concluding that Anglicanism and Catholicism were essentially the same thing, that the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Anglican faith were compatible with Roman Catholic theology.  Or more precisely, in Newman's meticulously razor-thin difference, the Articles were ant-Roman, but not anti-Catholic. It garnered a vociferous response - by Whately among others.  Sympathizers like William Sewell broke with the Tractarians and Richard Bagot (Bishop of Oxford) suppressed further publication of the Tracts.   Despite the scandal of Tract No. 90, the leaders of the Tractarian movement lingered on at Oxford, with significant personal influence, for a few years more.  

But times were about to change.  The Tractarians lost the battle for the Professorship of Poetry, which had been vacated by Keble in 1841. Their favored candidate, Isaac Williams, was soundly defeated, partly because of Pusey's own supportive circular letter had inadvertently identified some irregular religious opinions. Emboldened by this victory, the Hebdomadal Council decided to follow it up in 1842 by vacating the 1836 statute against Hampden.  In May 1843, Pusey was accused of delivering a sermon on the Eucharist contrary to Anglican doctrine, after a brief secretive inquiry, found guilty and barred from preaching at Oxford for two years.  The final straw was the publication in 1844 of the Ideal of the Christian Church by William G. Ward, a disciple of the Tractarians, practically condemning the Anglican Church as faithless compared to Catholicism.  The Oxford authorities launched an inquiry into Ward's book.  In February 1845, at the Oxford Convocation, Ward's book was condemned and Ward stripped of his degrees. A third measure, that would have empowered the Vice-Chancellor to launch an inquisition into the orthodoxy of any university member at any time, was vetoed by the Proctors.  But it was only a temporary stay until the end of the Proctors' term of a year.  In the aftermath, the Tractarian movement began to crumble.  A stream of resignations followed in the course of 1845, as Tractarians one by one gave up their posts and future careers. Several the Tractarians (notably starting with John Henry Newman in late 1845) formally converted to Catholicism proper.  The Oxford Movement did not end, but it would have to continue outside of Oxford.

The discrediting of the Tractarians also weakened the High Church hold on Oxford after 1845.  After fifteen years, the old Noetic Liberals were finally back on top.   In 1847, Nassau William Senior had few difficulties being elected again to the Drummond Chair in economics.  Senior would serve his second term until 1852.  But greater changes were about the befall Oxford.

1854 Reform

Debate over curriculum continued in the meantime.   In the 1830s, the old battle between the Scottish school and Oxford was resumed in the Edinburgh Review, this time between the Scottish philosopher Sir William Hamilton, a professor civil history at Edinburgh, and Vaughan Thomas, an Oriel graduate. This time, the debate was not on the content of the curriculum as much as its implementation. Hamilton derided the tutorial format and argued in favor of lectures, blaming the fragmentary organization and excessive power of Oxford colleges. He also demanded that the classics be approached "philosophically", rather than "philologically". 

The Scottish-educated Whig-Liberal prime minister Lord John Russell took the matter in hand with the appointment of a 1850 Royal Commission to inquire into the state of the university. It consisted of seven commissioners, all respectable Oxonians, but many of them also liberals and reformers, connected with the old Oriel Noetics.  This included the chair, Dr. Samuel Hinds (Bishop of Norwich), Whately's own chaplain, the lingering geometry professor Baden Powell and Archibald C Tait (a follower of Thomas Arnold).  Another Arnold disciple, Arthur P. Stanley was appointed to the powerful position of secretary to the commission   Conservatives protested the composition of the commission, and the Oxford University authorities refused to cooperate.  The Convocation petitioned Queen Victoria to declare the commission unconstitutional, as it interfered with the college founder's wills.  Even after its legality was established, Oxford moved into passive resistance - the university and the colleges refused to supply information to the commission, or even reply to its inquiries.  But the Commission had its allies -  notably the Oxford professors, most of whom had long hoped for reform but had been hitherto powerless.  The professors filled in and provided  the information and evidence the authorities and colleges declined to provide.  The Oxford Commission Report came out in the Spring of 1852 (although formally dated August 30).  And its findings were harsh - indeed quite harsher than the equivalent report on Cambridge.

The 1852 Commission Report characterized Oxford University authorities as an ecclesiastical oligopoly, its colleges negligent, and its students merely clerical office-seekers.  The education it offered was irrelevant and collegial instruction ineffective.  There was little or no studying going on, students were mostly idle, college life indolent, most of their time occupied with "fornication, wine and betting".  The commission commended the incentives of the honours examinations, but wanted curricular reform across the board.  As it stood, the Oxford curriculum provided no preparation for professional life, not even for the clergy.  Logic, Oxford's central compulsory subject, was of dubious value, and only served to help students avoid mathematics.  The 1852 report set out several recommendations: (1) open up the university administration to include the professors in government bodies, (2) stop relying on colleges, strengthen the central university, build up a corps of university teachers to do the bulk of the instruction; (3)  allow specialization in the curriculum, focus more attention on mathematics and the sciences, (4) remove the ordination requirement for fellows (albeit keep the celibacy requirement), (5) abolish special privileges reserved to certain families, schools or local districts, remove restrictions on scholarships and fellowships and open them up to competition on merit, (6) do something about making it cheaper, so middle class students can attend, e.g. increase number and value of scholarships, allow students to reside in licensed private halls or hostels, rather than colleges.  Pointedly, the report did not, however, recommend lifting the religious tests - although they did point out that the matriculation oath was probably a bad idea (young students should not make solemn oaths about things they do not yet understand).

The Commission Report was harsh enough to change the mind of William E. Gladstone.  At the time, Gladstone was not only Russell's chancellor of the exchequer, he was also a member of parliament for Oxford University, a confirmed High Church man and had been one of the most vocal and strident opponents of the royal commission in 1850.  Now, Gladstone took it upon himself to draft the Oxford Reform Bill, incorporating the commission's recommendations, and submitted it to parliament in March 1854. The subsequent debate was acrimonious, but the the bill passed and the Oxford Reform Act (17 & 18 Victoria, c.81) received royal assent on August 7, 1854.  Gladstone wanted to give the university a chance to reform itself.  He wanted to avoid the spectacle of debates on open Commons floor, with wild parliamentarians writing statutes dictating the inner workings of the venerable ancient university and colleges.  Instead, the Act set up a small Executive Commission with statutory powers to oversee the process..[§1]  The university and colleges were asked to reform their statutes and implement the changes in the 1852 report by themselves..[§28]   Only if they failed to do so by a certain date (Michaelmas, 1855), would the Executive Commission step in and legislate for them.[§29]  

The 1854 reform act left the old government bodies intact, but added a new one, the "Congregation of the University of Oxford" which included the professoriat (professors, deputy professors and public examiners), [§16], as the 'new' legislative body, the older Convocation now merely serving as a kind of upper house. The Hebdomodal council was also opened to include at least six professors  [§5].   The Hebdomadal council still initiated legislation, but it went through the Congregation first, and only in the end was thrown up to the Convocation for final approval.  The veto power of the Convocation was circumscribed only in the next century, in 1926, as a result of the 1922 Asquith Commission.

In teaching, the changes in the 1854 act were also not so dramatic.  Many of the older university professorships were reset on new terms, strengthened and their number expanded.  But the college tutorial system remained.  The federal power of the central university was increased, but the colleges were still very powerful.  The curriculum did began to change - although to be fair, changes had already begun before the report. Not only in economics under the Drummond professors, but also in the natural sciences, with geology (under William Buckland and Charles Lyell) leading the way.  The Oxford museum of natural history had opened already in 1850. Indeed, Oxford was probably moving at a faster pace than Cambridge at this time.  The main obstacle to curricular reform was not so much institutional, as personal.  Many professors simply did not have the time or inclination to build it up..

The repeal of religious tests was not recommended by the 1852 Report, nor in Gladstone's original 1854 bill.  They believed that the religious question should be dealt with separately, and did not want to risk sinking university reform because of it.  But the lifting of religious tests had been demanded for very long by Radicals and the urban Dissenters that formed the popular base of the Whigs.  The question was virtually unavoidable, and was fiercely fought during the Commons debate.  It was also influenced by the contemporary Northcote-Trevelyan report, proposing to overhaul the British Civil Service, open up competition and recruit on merit.  As many of these position would require degrees, maintaining the religious tests to exclude Dissenters from universities would be needlessly narrowing the pool of talent from which the civil service could draw.    The removal of many (but not all) religious tests was included in the 1854 act  - most notably the oath at matriculation and the oath at taking a B.A. degree (except for Divinity) [§43 & 44].  Dissenters (non-Anglicans) were finally allowed to matriculate and get BA degrees from Oxford University.  However, the religious test was not lifted from the MA degree, and as a result they were still excluded from participation in Oxford government bodies.  Nor did they lift any religious restrictions that might be attached to college lectureships, fellowships or scholarships.

The struggle for full repeal continued, and bills to abolish all remaining religious restrictions was introduced in 1863, and thereafter again yearly,  G.J. Goschen was one of the prime promoters of the campaign at Oxford (Fawcett was equally vigorous at Cambridge).. Gladstone's Liberal party put it on their platform in 1864, but could not get it passed before the Conservatives returned to power in 1865 (Gladstone lost his Oxford seat as a result).  But the fight continued.  After repeated tries, the bill finally passed Commons in 1866, but failed at Lords. The Liberals returned to power in 1868, and kept trying. At last, in 1870, they included it in the Queen's speech.  After a year's delay, it was finally passed.  The remaining religious restrictions were abolished in the 1871 University Tests Act (34 & 35 Victoria c.26) [site, bk]  Teachers of any belief are allowed to sit on university bodies.  It would take some time to implement, and in 1877 an Executive Commission was appointed to sniff out and repeal of any remaining religious restrictions in the nooks and crannies of college endowments and fellowships..

In sum, the 1854 Reform made university government more democratic, reorganized and strengthened the professoriat, set curricular reform moving towards modern specializations, and got rid of special privileges and religious restrictions.  It significantly changed the character of Oxford -  it broke the ecclesiastical grip on the university, cleared out the clerical office-seekers and set it on track to becoming a proper educational institution.   Student enrolment climbed in the aftermath.

Needless to say, the Tractarians, already in decline, were finished off by the 1854 Act.  The days of high clericalism and doctrinal quarrels were over.  The old vision of the Noetics, the educational philosophy of Copleston, Whately and especially Arnold, triumphed in the aftermath. Although the colleges were still powerful, a new generation of tutors emerged - such as Benjamin Jowett at Balliol College - whose mission was not merely to teach classics and mathematics, but to mold the character and morals of Oxford students in a broader secular sense.  Although the new, expanding post-reform professoriate nudged it in a scientific direction, with more specialization, it did not embrace the German model, it did not focus on research.  Oxford's new educational mission was the holistic training of leaders, politicians, civil servants and teachers, for the benefit of Britain and the British empire. 

It is a mistake to conclude that Oxford became more open in the aftermath of the 1854 reform.  In certain ways, it became more exclusive and elitist than ever. With the clerics gone, Oxford became more firmly a finishing school for the affluent and powerful.  True, it became slightly less aristocratic, but, at the same time, also less accessible to the lower classes.  Post-reform Oxford became essentially the private province of the new upper middle classes, with the goal of turning the children of wealthy manufacturers, merchants and professionals, into a new gentlemanly ruling class.

In the half-century between 1854 and 1904, Oxford was essentially closed off to the poor, and contributed to the increase, rather than decrease, of social class divisions in English society. 

This had not always been the case.  A clerical career had always been the ticket for bright but poor children to escape their social station.  The original purpose of the Oxford colleges, when they were erected back in the 14th and 15th Centuries, was precisely to provide room and board for poor students.  The children of the nobility and gentry had invaded the colleges after the 16th C. Reformation, but the lower classes were never closed off.  There were ample amounts of scholarships and exhibitions available to the poor, and grammar schools erected and affiliated to the colleges provided a ladder inside. All this was now gone.  The 1854 Act, in sweeping away "special privileges", also swept away Oxford's traditional (however rickety) affirmative action for the poor.  Clauses about needy students or local districts were erased, and open competition  for places and scholarships on the basis of merit alone usually meant they were all snapped up by the upper classes.  With the old public and grammar school connections severed,  a series of new private boarding schools rose up in the wake of the reform - Cheltenham, Haileybury, Malvern, Rossall - to prepare the upper middle class children for the competitions. The lower classes did not stand a chance. Oxford's new class exclusivity was famously condemned in Thomas Hardy's 1894 novel, Jude the Obscure.

Nonetheless, in 1857 Oxford, and later Cambridge, adopted a system of local examinations in secondary schools. This was initiated on a voluntary basis by Sir Thomas Acland and Dr. Temple

Economics in Post-Reform Oxford

In the tractarian and reform years, economics at Oxford still traveled on its own course.  Nassau William Senior returned and  held a second five-year tenure as Drummond chair (1847-52).  As far as economics was concerned, things changed little in the immediate aftermath of the 1854 reform.

Economics integration in the Oxford curriculum was tentative.  From the outset, it was originally merely an optional subject in the honours course on Literae Humaniores (Classics),  although as late as 1909 it is noted that rarely more than one question on economics was found on the classics exam, and was underweighed anyway.   The Drummond Professorship of Political Economy was organized under the School of History.  With the 1854 reforms, a new honours course in "Law & Modern History" was introduced, for which political economy was a subject.  History was strengthened by the establishment of the Chichele Professorship of Modern History in 1862 and the separation of the law component into its own course in 1873.  Modern History (containing economics) quickly became the second most popular honours course, behind Literae Humaniores (Classics).  Familiarity with political economy was also a subject for the general non-honours examination.  In 1873, the recommended textbooks were Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations and  J.S. Mill's Principles and (for lower level) Fawcett's Manual and (later) F.A. Walker's First Lessons. In 1876, the Cobden Club offered a prize of £20 (bumped up £60 in 1881)  for the best essay in economics by an Oxford student (to be awarded every three years).

The terms of the Drummond professorship were also revised.  The two-year interval condition was revoked in December 1867, to allow Bonamy Price to serve consecutive terms.  In 1877, the Oxford University statutes were revised and the university added to Drummond's original endowment, bringing up the stipend to £300, supplemented by an additional £200 fellowship at All Souls College. The manner of election was also circumscribed, the convocation was set aside and the candidate was to be now elected by a special board consisting of the Chancellor of the University, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Regius Professor of Modern History, the Whyte Profesor of Moral Philosophy and a fifth elector chosen by the fellows of All Souls.  

The 1877 revision led to the further conversion of college fellowships into university professorships. It also established a Common University Fund to finance a new slate of readers and lecturers (albeit no new ones in economics yet).

It is to the English historical school, notably the lectures of Bonamy Price and J.E. Thorold Rogers in economics and T.H. Green and Arnold Toynbee in modern history, that interest in economics grew in the 1880s.  Alfred Marshall happened to also be a lecturer at Oxford during this period. Some of the new crop of economic-oriented students included William J. Ashley, John A. Hobson, G.J. Goschen, L.L. Price and Edwin Cannan.  Many stayed on, whether as history fellows or as Oxford extension lecturers, and went on to form organizations like the Social Science Club (1885) and the Oxford Economic Society (1886).

The Christian Social Union, a organization primarily consisting of young churchmen for the study and advocacy of "Christian social principles", was established at Oxford on November 16,1889. A London branch was set up in 1890, and a division of labor set up - the Oxford branch mainly focusing on economics (from a fact-collecting bent), the London branch mainly doing the outreach (lectures, sermons, etc.) Other branches of the CSU were soon set up in many other cities (including Cambridge), but the Oxford and London branches were by far the largest. The Oxford branch's journal, The Economic Review, established in 1891, was edited by William J.H. Campion (Keble), John Carter (Exeter) and Lancelot R. Phelps (Oriel), and became, for a brief time, something of an organ of English historicism.

The arrival of Francis Ysidro Edgeworth as Drummond Professor in 1891 changed matters.  An economic theorist, Edgeworth deflated the historicist energy that had bubbled up during the 1880s.  Edgeworth primarily relied on the theoretical economics of Mill and Marshall for the lion's share of the lectures, and economic history was gradually reduced to a single course out of seven  (Mill's Principles was still the required text in 1909).   Edgeworth was an unpopular lecturer and attendance was scant.  Nonetheless, Edgeworth was content with the space offered and did not push for an expansion of economics in the curricula.  This finally led L.L. Price to complain to the Oxford Hebdomadal council in 1902 that the study of economics had fallen to a point of near-extinction among students.  Price pointed to Cambridge's growing strength in economics, and the imminent introduction of the economic tripos there, suggesting Oxford needed to catch up.  This led to the establishment of a special post-graduate "Diploma in Economics", overseen by a special seven-member Committee of Economics, to encourage more systematic study of economics at Oxford.  The Diploma lectures and examinations began in 1904, consisted of five papers - three required papers on economic theory, the history of economic thought, and economic history, and two elective papers on any mix of these (including applied topics).

20th Century Oxford

Economics finally ascended with the establishment of the honours course in Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE) in 1920.

The Oxford Institute for Statistics, organized under director Arthur L. Bowley,  served as a gathering point for emigré scholars in the 1930s-40s fleeing fascist-dominated Central Europe, most notably Michal Kalecki, but also Thomas Balogh, Fritz Burchardt, Kurt Mandelbaum, E.F. Schummacher and Josef Steindl.

The Keynesian Revolution filtered from Cambridge into Oxford in the 1930s initially through Roy Harrod (lecturer at Christ Church since 1922, and a close correspondent of Keynes) and James Meade (fellow at Hertford College since 1930, who had participated in the "Cambridge Circus" in 1930-31; Meade left Oxford in 1937).   In the late 1930s, Harrod launched what we have called the "Oxbridge Programme", connecting Keynesian macroeconomics with dynamic theories of growth and cycles.  In this effort, Harrod was joined by Kalecki (until he left in 1945) and subsequently John Hicks (who arrived in Oxford in 1946 after a spell at LSE, Cambridge and Manchester).

The Keynesian macroeconomist James Meade returned in 1967 as a research fellow at Christ's College.  Another professorship of economics was created in 1969 (to be later called the Edgeworth Professorship of Economics) and first held by James Mirrlees (brought in from Cambridge).  A Professorship of Economics at Nuffield College was established for Amartya Sen (coming from LSE) in 1977.

 

  


Oxford Colleges and Halls

Oxford University is a collegiate university, composed of 38 constituent colleges and related halls.

Traditional  (pre-1854):

 
Colleges Founded

Head

Famous economists (fellows and/or educated)
University College (1249) Master Thomas Cooper, Edward West, G.D.H. Cole (ed. Balliol)
Balliol College (1263) Master Charles Davenant,  Adam Smith (ed.), William J. Ashley (ed.), F.Y. Edgeworth (ed.), Edwin Cannan, James Bonar, G.D.H. Cole (ed.), Josef Steindl, Thomas Balogh, Paul Streeten
Merton College (1264) Warden John Duns Scotus,
Exeter College (1314) Rector  
Oriel College (1326) Provost Henry Beeke, Edward Copleston, John Davison, Richard Whately, G.J. Goschen, Francis Davy Longe, L.L. Price (ed. Trinity)
Queen's College (1341) Provost Jeremy Bentham,
New College (1379) Warden Kenneth E. Boulding
Lincoln College (1427) Rector George Tatham, William J. Ashley, John A. Hobson
All Souls College (1438) Warden Hubert D. Henderson,  F.Y. Edgeworth, John Hicks (ed. Balliol; also Nuffield)  R.C.O. Matthews, Jacob Marschak
Magdalen College (1458) President Sir Matthew Hale, Nassau William Senior,  J.E. Thorold Rogers
Brasenose College (1509) Principal William Petty, Colin Clark (ed.)
Corpus Christi College (1517) President L.T. Hobhouse, H. Llewellyn Smith
Christ Church College (1546) Dean Dudley Digges (ed.), John Locke, W.F. Lloyd, R.F. Harrod
Trinity College (1554) President  
St John's College  (1555) President Josiah Tucker, Henry Robinson,
Jesus College (1571) Principal  
Wadham College (1610) Warden  
Pembroke College (1624) Master  
Worcester College (1714) Provost (ex-Gloucester Hall, raised and renamed to College in 1714) Bonamy Price
Hertford College (1740)   (ex-Hart Hall, raised and renamed to College in 1740, defunct by 1815; name resurrected in 1883 for raising of Magdalen Hall), James E. Meade (ed. Oriel)
       
Halls      
St. Alban's Hall (c,1230) Principal (connected to Merton, annexed by Merton in 1881)
St. Edmund's Hall (1236) Principal (connected to Queen's, raised to college status in 1957)
St. Mary's Hall (c.1239) Principal (connected to Oriel, annexed by Oriel in 1902)
Hart Hall (1282) Principal (connected to Exeter, raised and renamed as Hertford College in 1740, dissolved 1815)
Gloucester Hall (1283) Principal (connected to St. John's, raised and renamed to Worcester College in 1714)
New Inn Hall (c.1360) Principal (connected to New College, renamed St. Peter's in 1929, raised to College in 1961)
Magdalen Hall (1448) Principal (connected to Magdalen, raised and renamed as Hertford College 1883) Thomas Hobbes
       


Later Colleges (post-1854)

 
Harris Manchester College (1786)  (full status 1996) See Manchester New College.
Keble College (1870)  
Lady Margaret Hall (1878)  
St. Anne's College (1878)  (full status 1952)
Somerville College (1879) Ursula Webb Hicks
Mansfield College (1886)  (full status 1995)
St. Hugh's College  (1886)  
St. Hilda's College (1893)  
St. Peter's College (1929)  (full status 1961)
Nuffield College (1937) John Hicks (ed. Balliol; later All Souls),  I.M.D. Little, Robert Clower, W.M. Gorman, Amartya Sen
St. Anthony's College (1950) (full status 1963)
Linacre College (1962)  
St. Catherine's College (1963)  
St. Cross (1965)  
Wolfson College (1966)  (full status 1981)
Kellogg College (1990)  (full status 1994)
Green Templeton College (2008)  

 

Oxford Professorships (by date) [to 1888, 1900]

The five Regius professorships (Divinity, Civil Law, Medicine, Hebrew and Greek) endowed by Henry VIII in the 1530s, confirmed in 1546, with stipend of 40 (later increased; D, H & G paid by chapter of Christ Church, Medicine & Civil law paid by the Exchequer). Appointments to the Regius Professorships are made by the crown.

In the 1618-23 period, during the latter part of the reign of James I, a series of new professorships were created by private endowments (Natural Philosophy, Geometry, Astronomy, Moral Philosophy, Ancient History, Anatomy)

A series of university statutes in 1854 led to the suppression of several college fellowships and their conversion into university-wide professorships. This process was furthered by the 1877 revision of statutes.  For instance, the University converted five fellowships endowed by to All Souls College, to establish two new "Chichele professorships" (International Law, Modern History).  Fellowships of Magdalen college were converted to establish  four "Waynflete professorships" ("Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy",  Chemistry, Physiology, Mathematics).  Fellowships at Corpus Christi College produced three "Corpus Professors" (Latin Language, Comparative Philology, Jurisprudence), fellowships at New College funded "Wykeham professors" (Logic, Physics) while fellowships in Merton College were used to create the "Linacre Professor" of comparative anatomy subsequently two more Merton-funded chairs (English Literature, Classical Archaeology & Art - the latter with Lincoln's help).

New statutes in 1877 upped the stipends for many of the professors by attaching to the chairs to fellowships in specific colleges.

  • 1497 Margaret Professor of Divinity
  • 1535 Regius Professor of Divinity
  • 1535 Regius Professor of Medicine
  • 1540 Regius Professor of Greek
  • 1540 Regius Professor of Hebrew
  • 1546 Regius Professor of Civil Law
  • 1618 Sedlian Professor of Natural Philosophy  (att. Queen's)
  • 1619 Savilian Professor of Geometry (att. New College)
  • 1620 Savilian Professor of Astronomy (att. New College)
  • 1621 Whyte's Professor of Moral Philosophy (att. Corpus Christi)
  • 1622 Camden Professor of Ancient History (att. Brasenose)
  • 1623 Tomlins Praelector of Anatomy (held by Regius Prof of Medicine)
  • 1626 Professor of Music
  • 1626 Choragus (Master of Musical Praxis)
  • 1636 Laudian Professor of Arabic (att. St. John's)
  • 1636 Lord Almoner's Reader in Arabic (Professor from 1724)
  • 1683 Reader in Mineralogy
  • 1683 Reader in Geology
  • 1708 Birkhead Professor of Poetry
  • 1724 Regius Professor of Modern History & Modern Languages (merely Modern History after 1848) (att. Oriel)
  • 1728 Sherardian Professor of Botany and of Agriculture (merely Botany after 1877) (att. Magdalen).
  • 1749 Professor of Experimental Philosophy (att. Wadham)
  • 1750 Lee's Lecturer in Anatomy
  • 1755 Vinerian Professor of Common Law (att. All Soul's)
  • 1780 Bampton Lecturer on Divinity (one year appointment)
  • 1780 Lord Lichfield's Professor of Clinical Instruction (Radcliffe Infirmary)
  • 1795 Rawlinson Professor of Anglo-Saxon (semi-att. St. John's)
  • 1798 Aldrichian Professor of Anatomy (originally held by Tomlins Praelector, annexed to Linacre Prof of Comparative Physiology in 1858)
  • 1803 Aldrichian Professor of the Practice of Medicine (originally held by Clinical Professor, annexed to Reg. Prof of Medicine in 1858)
  • 1803 Aldrichan Professor of Chemistry (suppressed 1866, annexed to Demonstrator in Chemistry in 1873)
  • 1813 Lecturer in Mineralogy (upgraded to professorship in 1856, recast as Waynflete professor of Mineralogy  in 1877) (att. Magdalen)
  • 1818 Lecturer in Geology (upgraded to professorship in 1856)
  • 1825 Drummond Professor of Political Economy (att. All Soul's after 1877)
  • 1830 Boden's Professor of Sanskrit (att. Balliol)
  • 1839 Praelector of Logic (upgraded to Wykeham Professor of Logic in 1877) (att. New College)
  • 1842 Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History
  • 1842 Regius Professor of Pastoral Theology
  • 1847 Ireland's Exegetical Professor
  • 1847 Taylor Teacher of German
  • 1847 Taylor Teacher of French
  • 1848 Taylor Professor of Modern European Languages (suppressed 1869)
  • 1854 Corpus Professor of Latin Language and Literature (att. Corpus Christi)
  • 1856 Taylor Teacher of Italian
  • 1858 Taylor Teacher of Spanish
  • 1859 Teacher of Hindustani
  • 1859 Chichele Professor of International Law and Diplomacy (att. All Soul's)
  • 1859 Waynflete Professor of Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy (att. Magdalen)
  • 1859 Grinfield Lecturer on Hebrew Scriptures (two year appointment)
  • 1860 Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy (att. Merton)
  • 1861 Hope Professor of Zoology
  • 1862 Chichele Professor of Modern History (att. All Soul's)
  • 1865 Waynflete Professor of Chemistry (att. Magdalen)
  • 1868 Reader in Ancient History (att. Brasenose)
  • 1868 Corpus Professor of Comparative Philology (att. Corpus Christi)
  • 1869 Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence (att. Corpus Christi)
  • 1869 Slade Professor of Fine Arts (att.) (held by Ruskin 1869-78, 1883-85)
  • 1876 Professor of Chinese
  • 1876 Jesus Professor of Celtic (att. Jesus)
  • 1877 Waynflete Professor of Physiology (att. Magdalen)
  • 1878 Reader in Indian History
  • 1878 Reader in Indian Law (att. All Soul's)
  • 1878 Teacher of Telugu
  • 1880 Teacher of Persian
  • 1881 Reader in Roman Law (att. All Soul's)
  • 1882 Oriel Professor for Interpretation of Scripture (att. Oriel)
  • 1883 Sibthorp's Professor of Rural Economy (separated from Botany, 1877)
  • 1883 Litchfield Lecturer in Medicine
  • 1883 Litchefield Lecturer in Surgery
  • 1884 Lincoln & Merton Professor of Classical Archaeology and Art (att. Lincoln)
  • 1883 Common University Fund (est. 1877) readers & lecturers
    • CUF Readers in Greek (1883), Latin (1883), Ancient History (1883),  Rabbinical Literature (1884), Ecclesiastical History (1884), English Law (1884), Anthropology (1884), Foreign History (1884), Geography (1887), Russian and other Slavonic Languages (1889).
    • CUF Lecturers in Human Anatomy (1885), Physics (1888), Arabic (1888), Medieval Palaeography (1890), Materia Medica (1891),  Diplomacy (1896), Pathology (1897),  Modern English Literature (1900).
  • 1885 Merton Professor of English Language and Literature (att. Merton).
  • 1892 Waynflete Professor of Mathematics (att. Magdalen).
  • 1892 Romanes Lecturer (one year appointment)
  • 1896 Ford Lecturer of English History (one year appointment)
  • 1898 Wilde's Reader in Mental Philosophy
  • 1900 Wykeham Professor of Physics (att. New College)
  • 1931 Chichele Professor of Economic History
  • 1944 Chichele Professor of Social and Political Theory
  • 1969 Edgeworth Professor of Economics

Drummond Professorship in Political Economy

Founded 1825 by London banker Henry Drummond, formerly of Christ Church, with an endowment of £100 per annum. The professor was elected by convocation and had to have an Oxford degree and residence. Under its terms, the professor was required to deliver nine lectures on political economy per year, and publish and print at least one of them.  The term of the Drummond professorship was five years.  Originally, nobody could be re-elected to it until after a two year interval had passed. This clause was repealed in December 1867 (Bonamy Price being the first to benefit from it).  From 1877, Oxford added £300 p/year to the Drummond chair, with an additional £200 for a fellowship at All Soul's College.  The Drummond Professor was elected by a board consisting of the President of the University, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Regius Professor of History, White Professor of Moral Philosophy, and a representative of the Warden and Fellows of All Souls. 

Holders of Drummond Chair (& college/hall)

  • 1825 Nassau William Senior (Magdalen)
  • 1830 Richard Whately (St. Alban)
  • 1832 William Forster Lloyd (Christ Church)
  • 1837 Herman Merivale (Balliol)
  • 1842 Travers Twiss (University)
  • 1847 Nassau William Senior (second time)
  • 1852 George Kettilby Rickards (Queen's)
  • 1857 Charles Neate (Oriel)
  • 1862 J.E. Thorold Rogers (Magdalen)
  • 1868 Bonamy Price (Worcester) (first to be continuously re-elected 1873, 1878, 1883)
  • 1888 J.E. Thorold Rogers (second time, All Souls)
  • 1891 Francis Ysidro Edgeworth, (Balliol, All Souls)
  • 1922 D.H. Macgregor (All Souls)
  • 1945 Hubert D. Henderson (All Souls)
  • 1952 John Hicks (Nuffield, All Souls)
  • 1965 R.C.O. Matthews (All Souls)
  • 1976 Joseph Stiglitz
  • 1980 Amartya Sen
  • 1991 Sir John Vickers
  • 2009 Vincent Crawford

 

 
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Resources on Oxford

Primary sources

  • Oxford University Calendar, handboooks, register.
  • Religious subscription debate of 1770s
    • Pietas Oxoniensis, or a full and impartial account of the expulsion of six students from St. Edmund Hall, Oxford by a Master of Arts [Richard Hill], 1768 [bk]
    • A Collection of Papers, designed to explain and vindicate the present mode of subscription required by the University of Oxford, from all young persons at their matriculation, 1772 [bk]
    • Reflections on the impropriety and inexpediency of lay-subscription to the XXXIX Articles, in the University of Oxford, by [Benjamin Buckler], 1772 [bk]
    • An Answer to pamphlet entitled Reflections on the impropriety &tc. by [T. Randolph], 1772 [bk]
    • A Vindication of the Protestant Dissenting ministers with regard to their late application to parliament, by Andrew Kippis 1772 [bk], [1773 ed]
    • Letters to the Rev. Dr. Kippis, occasioned by his treatise entitled 'A Vindication of the Protestant Dissenting ministers &c.', by Josiah Tucker, Dean of Gloucester, 1773 [bk]
    • "On some parts of the discipline in our English Universities" by Vicesimus Knox, 1782, Essays, moral and literary, No 77, [1803 ed, p.103] (Oxford)
    • Letters on the subject of Subscription to the Liturgy and Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England, by the Author [John Jebb],  1772 [bk] [1787 reprint in Works of John Jebb, v.1 (p.137)] (see also Cambridge)
    • A Letter to Sir William Meredith, upon the subject of subscription to the liturgy and Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England, by an Englishman [John Jebb], 1772 [bk]  [1787 Works v.1,  (p.223)] (Cambridge)
    • Thoughts on Subscription to Religious Tests, particularly that required by the University of Cambridge, of candidates for the degree of Bachelor of Arts, by William Frend, 1788/89 [1793 2nd ed av] (Cambridge)
  • A Circular Letter of advice and justification from the Committee for ensuring the election of sir Robert Inglis, addressed to the members of the University of Oxford who signed the requisition against Mr Peel by Anon [William Sewell], 1829 [bk]
  • Curriculum debate of 1831-32:
    • "The Universities of England - Oxford", by [Sir William Hamilton], 1831, Edinburgh Review (No. 106, June), p.384
    • The Legality of the present Academical System of the University of Oxford re-asserted against the new calumnies of the Edinburgh Review, by a Member of Convocation, by [Vaughn Thomas], 1831 [bk]
    • "English Universities - Oxford", by [Sir William Hamilton] 1831, Edinburgh Review (No.108, Dec), p.478
    • Considerations on the great and various injuries arising from the course of education pursued in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and in nearly all the public schools of this kingdom, by Anon 1832 [bk]
    • The Present State and Future Prospects of Mathematical and Physical Studies in the University of Oxford, considered in a public lecture, by Baden Powell, 1832 [bk]
    • A Few Words in favour of Professor Powell and the Sciences, as connected with certain educational remarks by Philomath: Oxoniensis, by [Richard Walker] 1832 [bk]
    • A Short Criticism of a lecture published by the Savilian professor of Geometry, by a Master of Art by [Anon], 1832 [bk]
    • "State of the Mathematical and Physical Sciences at Oxford", 1832, Quarterly Journal of Education, p.192
    • "Physical Studies in Oxford", 1834, Quarterly Journal of Education, (no. 13, Jan) p.47, (no.14, Apr, note), p.367) (no. 15) p.61
    • "Religion in its Connection with Science" 1834, British Critic, (Jan, no.29) p.233,
    • "Nolan and Powell", 1834, British Critic (Apr, no.30), p.411
    • A Letter to the Editor of The British Critic, occasioned by an article in the number of that journal for April 1834, by Baden Powell, 1834 [bk]
    • Oxford as it is, in a letter to a noble lord, by a foreigner of rank, 1834 [bk]
    • Black Gowns & Red Coats, or Oxford in 1834, a satire in six parts, addressed to His Grace the Duke of Wellington, by Anon [George Cox], 1834 [bk]
  • Dissenters debate of 1834 (see also Cambridge)
    • Observations on Religious Dissent by Renn Dickson Hampden, 1834 [bk]
    • "Admission of Dissenters to the Universities", by [Sir William Hamilton] 1834, Edinburgh Review, (No. 121, Oct) p.202 (Cambridge controversy)
    • Oxford petitions against admission Dissenters, 1834, Christian Remembrencer, p.393
    • "The Universities and the Dissenters", by [Sir William Hamilton] 1835,  Edinburgh Review,  (No. 122, Jan), p.422
    • Thoughts on the Admission of Dissenters to the University of Oxford, and on the establishment of a State Religion, in a letter to a Dissenter, by William Sewell, 1834
    • Second Letter to a Dissenter on the opposition of the University of Oxford to the charter of the London College, by William Sewell, 1834 [bk]
    • "On the Admission of Dissenters to the University of Oxford", 1834, Quarterly Journal of Education, (no.15), p.78 (review of Sewell)
    • "Elementary works by M. Quetelet", 1834, QJ Education (no. 14, Apr), p.347.
    • A charge delivered to the clergy of the archdeaconry of Lewes, at the primary visitation of Edward, lord Bishop of Chichester, in May 1834 by Edward Maltby (Bp of Durham), 1834 [bk]
    • "On the Admission of Dissenters to the University of Oxford", 1834, Quarterly Journal of Education, (no. 16), p.273 (review of Maltby)
    • Two Sermons on the Enforcement of Attendance upon Daily Worship, preached in the Chapel of Exeter College, Oxford, to which is annexed a letter to the Right Hon. E. G. Stanley, by William Sewell, 1834 [bk]
    • The Attack Upon the University of Oxford, in a letter to Earl Grey, by William Sewell, 1834 [2nd ed]
    • Thoughts on Subscription, in a letter to a member of the convocation, by William Sewell, 1834
    • Postscript to Thoughts on Subscription, by William Sewell, 1835
    • A Few Remarks on the proposed admission of dissenters into the University of Oxford by George Moberly, 1834 [bk]
    • On the Origins of Universities and Academical degrees by Henry Malden, 1834 [bk] (UCL controversy)
    • The Admission of Dissenters into the universities considered in a sermon, 1834 by John Hamilton Gray, 1834.
    • The Present a Religious Crisis: Church Reform, by Edward Duncombe, 1835 [bk]
    • A Second Letter to the Rev. Hugh James Rose, B.D., containing notes on Milner's History of the Church in the Fourth Century, by S.R. Maitland [bk]
    • Subscription No Bondage, or, the practical advantages afforded by the Thirty-Nine Articles as guides in all the branches of Academical Education, with an introductory letter on the declaration which it is proposed to substitute for subscription to the articles at matriculation, by "Rusticus" [F.D. Maurice], 1835, [bk, av]
    • An Historical Vindication of the leading principles contained in the Earl of Radnor's bill, entitled, "Act for Appointing Commissioners to inquire respecting the Statutes and Administration of the different Colleges and Halls at Oxford and Cambridge", 1837 - [Brit Mag review, p.551]
    • "Attack on the Universities - Oxford", 1837, British Critic, (Jul, no.43), p.168 (review of Edinb Rev)
    • "The Universities of England", 1837, British Critic,  (Oct, no. 44), p.397 (cont'd)
  • Hampden case of 1836
    • An Essay on the Philosophical Evidence of Christianity, or, the credibility obtained to a scriptural revelation, from its coincidence with the facts of nature by Renn Dickson Hampden, 1827 [bk]
    • Parochial Sermons, 1828 [bk]
    • The Scholastic philosophy considered in its relation to Christian theology, in a course of lectures delivered in the year 1832, before the University of Oxford, at the lecture founded by John Bampton, M.A. by Renn Dickson Hampden, 1833 [bk] [1837 2nd ed], [1848 3rd ed]
    • "Thomas Aquinas", by Renn Dickson Hampden, 1833, Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, [Reprint as The Life of Thomas Aquinas, a dissertation of the Scholastic philosophy of the Middle Ages. 1848 offprint]
    • Observations on Religious Dissent by Renn Dickson Hampden, 1834 [bk]
    • An Apology for the Study of Divinity, by Hugh James Rose, 1834 [bk] (at Durham)
    • A Course of Lectures introductory to the study of Moral Philosophy, delivered in the University of Oxford, in Lent term, 1835, by Renn Dickson Hampden, 1835 [bk], [1856 2nd ed]
    • Inaugural Lecture read before the University of Oxford, in the Divinity School on Thursday, March 17th, 1836, by Renn Dickson Hampden, 1836 [bk]
    • [Anon] The Foundation of the Faith assailed in Oxford, being a letter to the Archbishop of Canterbury, by a clerical member of the convocation, by Henry W.Wilberforce, 1835 [bk]
    • Dr. Hampden's Theological Statements and the Thirty-Nine Articles compared by E. Pusey, 1836
    • [Anon] Elucidations of Dr. Hampden's Theological Statements, by J.H. Newman, 1836 [bk]
    • [Anon] Dr Hampden's Past and Present Statements compared,  by E. Pusey,1836 [bk]
    • Declaration of Censure of R.D. Hampden by Resident Members of the Convocation, March 10, 1836 [bk] (by Vaughn Thomas, E. Pusey,  J.H. Newman, W. Sewell, etc)
    • [Anon] A Non-resident M.A.'s Self-vindication for attending to support the vote of censure on Dr. Hampden's writings, 1836 [bk]
    • [Anon] A Letter to His Grace the Archbishop of Canterbury, explanatory of the Proceedings at Oxford, on the appointment of the present Regius Professor of Divinity, by a Member of the University, 1836 [bk]
    • [Pseud] 'Softly John!' or a word of caution to Calvin not to set up for Pope in a Protestant University, by Jortin Redevivus 1836 [bk]
    • Remarks intended to shew how far Dr. Hampden may have been misunderstood and misrepresented during the controversy at Oxford, by W.W. Hull, 1836 [bk]
    • "Dr. Hampden and the University of Oxford", 1836, British Critic, (Apr, No.38), p.482
    • "The Oxford Malignants and Dr. Hampden", by [Thomas J. Arnold], 1836, Edinburgh Review, (Apr, No.127), p.225
    • "Oxford Orthodoxy", 1836, Eclectic Review, p.308.
    • Censure of 1836 still necessary, 1837? [bk]
    • Correspondence between the Rev. Dr. Hampden, Regius Professor of Divinity in the University of Oxford, and the Most Rev. Dr. Howley, Lord Archbishop of Canterbury, 1838 [bk]
  • The Oxford Movement (Tractarian period, 1833-1845)
    • Tracts for the Times, by members of Oxford University, 1833-1841
      • vol. 1 for 1833-34 (Nos. 1-46) [bk]
      • vol. 2 for 1834-35 (Nos.47-70) [bk]
      • vol. 3 for 1835-36 (Nos. 71-76) [bk]
      • vol. 4 for 1836-37 (Nos.78-82 ) [bk]
      • vol. 5 for 1838-40 (Nos.83-88)  [bk]
      • vol. 6 = No. 89-90, Index, Diss, 1842 [bk]
      • Tract No. 89 - "On the Mysticism attributed to the Early Fathers of the Church" by John Keble  [1868 repr]
      • Tract No. 90 - "Remarks on Certain Passages in the Thirty-Nine Articles" by John Henry Newman, 1841 [bk] [1841 2nd ed] [1842 v.6 ed], [1865 ed]
      • Index to the Tracts for the Times, with a dissertation by David Croly, 1842 [1842 v.6 Index., Diss]
    • Inaugural Lecture as Professor of Moral Philosophy, delivered in the Clarendon May 25th 1836, by William Sewell, 1836 [bk]
    • [Pseud] Pastoral epistle from His Holiness the Pope to some members of the University of Oxford, faithfully translated from the original Latin, by [Charles Dickinson, Bishop of Meath], 1836 [bk] (satirical)
    • An Earnest Remonstrance to the Author of the 'Pope's pastoral letter to certain members of the University of Oxford'  with a postscript, noticing the Edinburgh Review and other pamphlets, and an appendix on Apostolical Succession by E.B. Pusey, 1836 [bk] (App = Tract 74)
    • The State in its Relations with the Church by William E. Gladstone 1838 [bk], [1839 3rd ed], [1841 4th ed, v.1, v.2]
    • Collegiate Reform: a sermon,  by William Sewell,1838 [1853]
    • Letters on Justification, by John H. Newman 1838 [bk]
    • A Letter to the Rev. Godfrey Faussett, D.D., Margaret Professor of Divinity, on Certain Points of Faith and Practice, by J.H. Newman, 1838 [bk]
    • Remains of the Late Reverend Richard Hurrell Froude, by R.H. Froude, 1838, v.1, v.2
    • The Connexion of Natural and Divine Truth, or, the study of the inductive philosophy, considered as subservient to theology by Baden Powell, 1838 [bk]
    • Tradition Unveiled: or, An exposition of the pretensions and tendency of authoritative teaching in the Church by Baden Powell, 1839 [bk]
    • Supplement to Tradition Unveiled, by Baden Powell, 1839 [bk]
    • A Lecture on Tradition, by Renn D. Hampden, 1839 [bk]
    • [Anon] Ancient Christianity and the Doctrines of the Oxford Tracts for the Times, by [Isaac Taylor], 1839, v.1, v.2
    • A Letter to the Right Rev. Father in God, Richard, Lord Bishop of Oxford, on the Tendency to Romanism, imputed to Doctrines Held of Old, as Now, in the English Church, by E.B. Pusey, 1839 [bk] [1840 4th ed]
    • A Letter to his the Rev. E.B. Pusey in reference to his letter to the lord Bishop of Oxford, by George Miller, 1840 [bk]
    • Christian Morals by Willam Sewell, 1840 [bk] [1841 ed]
    • [Anon] The Church of he Fathers by [J.H. Newman], 1840 [bk]
    • Church Principles considered in their results, by William E. Gladstone, 1840 [bk]
    • A Letter to a Friend, on the Tract for the Times, No. 89 by S.R. Maitland, 1841 [bk]
    • A Letter addressed to the Rev. R.W. Jelf, D.D., in explanation of No. 90, in the series called the Tracts for the Times, by J.H. Newman, 1841 [bk]
    • A Letter to Right Reverend Father in God, Richard, Lord Bishop of Oxford, on occasion of No. 90, in the series called the Tracts for the Times, by J.H. Newman, 1841 [bk]
    • The Articles Treated on in Tract 90 reconsidered and their interpretation vindicated in a letter to the Rev. J.W. Jelf, D.D., with an appendix from Abp. Ussher on the difference between ancient and modern addresses to saints, by E.B. Pusey, 1841 [bk]
    • The Case of Catholic Subscription to the Thirty-Nine Articles considered: with especial reference to the duties and difficulties of English Catholics in the present crisis; in a letter to the Hon. Mr. Justice Coleridge, by John Keble, 1841 [1865 ed]
    • Some Remarks on a letter addressed to Rev. R.W. Jelf in explanation of No. 90, by Ambrose Lisle Philipps, 1841, [bk]
    • A Letter to the Rev. E.B. Pusey , on the Publication of No. 90 of the Tracts for the Times, by William Sewell, 1841 [bk]
    • A Review of a Letter from the Rev. W. Sewell to the Rev. Dr. Pusey, to which are added remarks on Mr. Sewell's Treatise on Christian Morals, and also on an article, attributed to him, entitled 'Romanism in Ireland,' which appeared in a late number of the Quarterly Review, by W. Thorpe, 1841 [av]
    • A Second Letter to the Rev. E.B. Pusey, D.D. in reference to his letter to the Rev. R.W. Jelf, by George Miller, 1841 [bk]
    • [Anon] The Controversy between Tract No. XC and the Oxford Tutors,  [by Richard Whately], 1841 [bk]
    • The Kingdom of Christ delineated, in two essays on Our Lord's own account of His person and the nature of His kingdom, and on the constitution, powers and ministry of a Christian Church as appointed by himself, by Richard Whately, 1841 [bk] [1842 2nd ed], [1845 4th ed.]
    • Oxford Divinity compared with that of the Romish and Anglican Churches by Charles Petit McIlvaine, 1841 [bk]
    • Romanism and Anglo-Catholicism, lectures by Joseph Sortain, 1841 [bk]
    • A Letter to His Grace the Archbishop of Canterbury, on Some Circumstances connected with the Present Crisis in the English Church, by E.B. Pusey, 1842 [bk], [2nd ed]
    • The Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England by R.D. Hampden, 1842 [bk]
    • The Divine Rule of Faith and Practice, or, a Defence of the Catholic doctrine that Holy Scripture has been since the times of the Apostles the sole divine rule of Faith and Practice to the Church, against the dangerous errors of the authors of the Tract for the Times, and the Romanists, as, particularly, that the rule of faith is 'made up of scripture and tradition together," &c., by William Goode, 1842, v.1, v2.
    • Anglo-Catholicism Not Apostolical: being an inquiry into the Scriptural authority of the leading doctrines advocated in the 'Tracts for the Times', by William Lindsay Alexander, 1843 [bk]
    • Considerations on the Position and Duty of the University of Oxford, with reference to the late proceeding against the Regius Professor of Hebrew, by H.A. Woodgate, 1843 [bk]
    • The Voice of the Anglican Church: being the declared opinions of Her Bishops on the doctrines of the Oxford Tract writers, by Henry Hughes, 1843 [bk]
    • "Puseyism, or the Oxford Tractarian School" by [Arthur P. Stanley], 1843, Edinburgh Review, (Apr, No. 146), p.501
    • A Narrative of Events connected with the publication of the Tracts for the Times, with reflections on existing tendencies to Romanism, and on the present duties and prospects of members of the Church by William Palmer, 1843 [bk, av]
    • The Ideal of a Christian Church considered in comparison with existing practice, containing a defence of certain articles in the British Critic, in reply to remarks on them in Mr. Palmer's Narrative by W.G. Ward, 1844 [bk]
    • A Practical Suggestion respectfully submitted to members of Convocation, with an appendix containing the testimonies of twenty-four prelatesof the English church, against Tract No. 90; and a series of extracts from Ward's Ideal of a Christian Church, carefully printed from the original work, by W. Simcox Bricknell, 1844 [bk]
    • "On the Disingenuousness of the Tractarians", 1844, Protestant Magazine, p.214
    • Anglo-Catholicism: A short treatise on the theory of the English Church, with remarks on its peculiarities; the Objections of Romanists and Dissenters; its practical defects; its present position; its future prospects; and the duties of its members, by William Gresley, 1844 [bk]
    • The Evils and Dangers of Tractarianism: a lecture delivered in the chapel of Magdalene College, in Michaelmas term, 1844 by E. Ellerton, 1845 [bk]
    • "The Tendency of Puseyism", by Baden Powell, 1846 Westminster Review [offpr]
    • Nine Sermons, preached before the University of Oxford, and printed chiefly between A.D. 1843-1855 by E.B. Pusey, 1891 [bk]
    • The Church of England a Portion of Christ's One Holy Catholic Church, and a means of restoring visible unity. An Eirenicon, in a letter to the author of "The Christian Year." by E.B. Pusey [1865 ed]
    • A Memoir of the Rev. John Keble, MA, late Vicar of Hursley, by J..T Coleridge, 1869 [bk]
    • William George Ward and the Oxford Movement by Wilfred Ward, 1889 [bk]
    • William George Ward and the Catholic Revival by Wilfred Ward, 1893 [bk]
    • Oxford High Anglicanism and Its Chief Leaders by James Harrison Rigg, 1895 [1899 2nd ed]
    • The Oxford Movement: Twelve Years, 1833-1845 by R.W. Church, 1897 [1904 ed]
    • The Secret History of the Oxford Movement, by Walter Walsh,1898 [1899 ed]
    • The History of the Romeward movement in the Church of England: 1833-1864 by Walter Walsh, 1900 [bk]
    • The Story of the Oxford Movement, by G.H.F. Nye, 1899 [bk]
    • The Life of John Henry, Cardinal Newman, by Wilfred Ward, 1912, v.1, v.2
    • A Short History of the Oxford Movement by S.L. Ollard, 1915 [bk]
  • Hints on the Formation of a Plan for the safe and effectual Revival of the Professorial System in Oxford, addressed to the Rev. the Warden of New College, by a Resident Member of Convocation [Archibald Tait], 1839 [bk]
  • Hampden case of 1847-48
    • A Letter to the Right Hon. Lord John Russell by R.D. Hampden, 1847 [bk]
    • The Third Hampden Agitation, 1847 [bk]
    • The Propositions attributed by the 'Presbyter' of the 'Times' to the Rev. Dr. Hampden, concerning the Trinity and Atonement, compared with the text of the Bampton Lectures by Rev. W. Hayward Cox, 1847 [bk]
    • Defence of Dr. Hampden, the Lord Bishop of Winchester respectfully re-addressed, in reference to the remonstrance addressed by his Lordship and other Bishops to the Prime Minister in the appointment of Dr. Hampden to the See of Hereford by Rev. Caleb Whitefoord, 1847 [bk]
    • An Epitome of the Bampton Lectures of Rev. Dr. Hampden, 1848 [bk]
    • Is Dr. Hampden Fairly Treated? The substance of a speech delivered at a meeting of the clergy at Aylesbury Dec. 7, 1847 to protest against the appointment of Dr. Hampden, on moving an amendment by J.B. Marsden, 1848 [bk]
    • The Bishop of Oxford and Dr. Hampden, by C.E. Kennaway,1848 [bk]
    • Dr. Hampden's elevation to the Episcopate seriously considered, by a Clergyman, 1848 [bk]
    • A Chapter on Bishops; occasioned by Dr. Hampden's elevation to the See of Hereford, 1848 [bk]
    • Remarks upon the Cases of Dr. Hampden and the Rev. J.T. Lee by W.E.N. Molesworth, 1848 [bk]
    • Hampden Controversy: plain remarks on Archdeacon Hare's letter to the Dean of Chichester; with a postscript on the Bishop of Oxford's letter and a prefatory notice of Lord John Russell's reply to the Bedford clergy, by Rev. W.J. Trower, 1848 [bk]
    • Letter to Lord John Russell on the bearing which the proposed admission of Jews to Parliament, the nomination of Dr. Hampden to the See of Hereford and other acts of government, have on the revival of Convocation, by W.J. Trower, 1848 [bk]
    • An Inquiry into the circumstances attendant upon the condemnation of Dr. Hampden in 1836 in six letters to the editor of the Oxford University Herald, by Rev. Robert French Laurence, 1848 [bk]
    • The Case of Dr. Hampden: the official and legal proceedings connected with the appointment of Dr. Hampden to the See of Hereford, 1848 [bk]
    • A Concise History of the Hampden Controversy, from the period of its commencement in 1832 to the present time, by Rev. Henry Christmas, 1848 [bk]
    • A Report of the Case of the Right Rev. R. D. Hampden, D.D., Lord Bishop Elect of Hereford, in Hereford Cathedral, the Ecclesiastical Courts, and the Queen's Bench by Richard Jebb, 1849 [bk]
    • Some Memorials of Renn Dickson Hampden, Bishop of Hereford, by Henrietta Hampden, 1871 [bk]
  • Opinions on the Admission of Dissenters to the Universities and on University Reform, by T.J. Arnold, W. Hamilton, J.S. Mill et al., 1847
  • Suggestions for an Improvement of the Examination Statute, [by B. Jowett & A.P. Stanley], 1848 [bk]
  • "University Education", by [Alexander Bain] 1848, Westminster Review, (Jul) p.441 (review of Whewell)
  • The Nation, the Church and the University of Oxford: Two sermons, by William Sewell, 1849 [bk]
  • Essays on the Spirit of the Inductive Philosophy, the Unity of Worlds, and the Philosophy of Creation, by Baden Powell, 1855 [bk]
  • Reform debate of 1850s
    • Oxford University Statutes, by G.R.M. Ward, 1845, v.1, (Laudian Statutes of 1636), 1851 v.2 (statutes from 1767 to 1850)
    • The Recommendations of the Oxford University Commissioners, with selections from their report; and a history of the university subscription tests, including notices of the university and collegiate visitations by James Heywood, 1853 [bk]
    • Handbook for Visitors to Oxford, 1847, J.H. Parker.[bk]
    • Oxford University Commission: Report of Her Majesty's Commissioners appointed to inquire into the State, Discipline, Studies and Revenues of the University and Colleges of Oxford: together with the evidence and an appendix, 1852 [av, cont]
    • "Art X - The Oxford University Commission Report", 1852 Edinburgh Review (Jul), p.232.
    • "The Oxford Reform Bill: A retrospect and a warning" 1854, The Spectator (Aug 12) [onl]
  • Oxford's Christian Social Union of Oxford's Economic Review,
  • "Philosophy at Oxford", by M. Pattison, 1876, Mind, p.82
  • Essays on the Endowment of Research, by Various Writers, 1876 [av] (Oxford scholars - Pattison, Cotton, Appleton, Sayce, Sorby, Cheyne, Thisleton, Nettleship)
  • Reminiscences, chiefly of Oriel College and the Oxford Movement, by Thomas Mozley, 1882, v.1, v.2
  • What Everybody Wants to Know about Money, A planned outline of monetary problems by Nine Economists from Oxford, edited by G. D. H. Cole, 1933 [av]. 

Secondary sources

  • The English Universities by Victor A. Huber, 1843 (abridged English transl.), v.1, v.2.1, v.2.2
  • "Oxford University"  in Kibble's Cyclopedia of Education, 1883
  • A History of the University of Oxford from the Earliest Times to the Year 1530, by H.C. Maxwell Lyte, 1886 [bk]
  • A History of the University of Oxford, by George C. Brodrick, 1886 [bk] [1894, 3rd ed], [1900 4th ed]
  • The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, by Hastings Rashdall, 1895, vol. 2.2 - England
  • Oxford and Oxford Life, by  J. Wells, 1899 [bk]
  • Remiscences of Oxford, by William Tuckwell, 1900 [bk] [1907 ed]
  • On the Nationalisation of the old English universities by Lewis Campbell, 1901 [bk, av]
  • Pre-Tractarian Oxford; a Reminiscence of the Oriel Noetics by William Tuckwell, 1909 [av]
  • "Pre-Tractarian Oxford" by Wilfred Wilberforce, 1909, The Catholic World  p.508
  • The Oxford Movement: Twelve years, 1833-1845 by R.W. Church, 1891 [bk]
  • A Short History of the Oxford Movement, by S.L. Ollard, 1915 [av]
  • The Meaning of a University: An inaugural address delivered to the students of University College, Aberystwyth, on the 20th of October, 1911, by Sir Walter A. Raleigh [av]
  • History of the English Church:
    • The English Church in the Middle Ages,  by William Hunt, 1888 [bk]
    • The English Church in the Nineteenth Century (1800-1833), by John H. Overton 1894 [bk, av]
    • v.1 - The English Church from its Foundations to the Norman Conquest (597-1066), by William Hunt, 1899 [bk]
    • v.2 - The English Church from the Norman Conquest to the Acession of Edward I (1066-1272) by W.R.W. Stephens, 1901 [bk]
    • v.3 - The English Church in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries, by W.W. Capes, 1900 [bk]
    • v.4  - The English Church in the Sixteenth Century, from the accession of Henry VIII to the death of Mary, by James Gairdner, 1903 [bk]
    • v.5 - The English Church in the Reigns of Elizabeth and James I (1558-1625) by W.H. Frere, 1904 [bk]
    • v.6 - The English Church from the Accession of Charles I to the death of Anne (1625-1714) by William H. Hutton, 1913 [bk]
    • v.7 - The English Church from the Accession of George I to the end of the Eighteenth Century (1714-1800) by John H. Overton and Frederic Relton, 1906 [bk]
    • v.8 - The English Church in the Nineteenth Century by Francis Warre Cornish, 1910, v.1, v.2 [av1, av2]
  • Oxford Economics and Oxford Economists, by Warren Young and Frederic S. Lee, 1993
  • "Introduction: From Oxford Political Economy to Oxford Economics, 1900-1939" by Warren Young &  Frederic S. Lee [extract pdf]
  • "Review of Young & Lee" by Ray Petridis [pdf]
  • Generational Conflict and University Reform: Oxford in the Age of Revolution by Heather Ellis, 2012 [prev]
  • Bibliography on Oxford, in Ward and Waller, editors, 1916, Cambridge History of English Literature, v.14
  • Tractarian Movement at Victorian Web
  • Tractarian Movement at Catholic Encycl
  • "The Oxford Tractarians, Renewers of the Church", at Anglican.org [site]
  • "Oxford archives" at Irwin Collier's Economics in the Rear-view Mirror blog.
  • Wikipedia: Oxford, Colleges of Oxford, Drummond Professorship
     

 

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